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What Data Unit Is Associated With The Open Systems Interconnection Layer Four?
What data unit is associated with the open systems interconnection layer four? The frame data unit is associated with the Open System Interconnection. Now, let us learn the different layers of the OSI model. The OSI model is used to understand, how the data is transferred from one system to anotherRead more
What data unit is associated with the open systems interconnection layer four?
The frame data unit is associated with the Open System Interconnection. Now, let us learn the different layers of the OSI model.
The OSI model is used to understand, how the data is transferred from one system to another system over the internet. To define in simple words, two computers that are connected to the LAN connection and through the RJ45 connectors and sharing the data through the network interface cable will form a computer network. But if one computer is based on the Microsoft window and the other computer is based on the MAC os, it makes it difficult for the computers to communicate with each other.
So to maintain successful communication between the two computers we use the OSI model. These OSI models consist of several layers. It is introduced by the ISO in the year 1984.
• Application layer
• presentation layer
• session layer
• Transport layer
• Network layer
• Datalink layer
• Physical layer
All these layers are the package of the protocols. Each layer consist of some of the protocols that help to communicate with the other layers.
Let us know the working of each layer in detail. The application layer is mostly used by network applications. Network applications are nothing but computer applications that uses the internet. The network applications use the application layer protocol like HTTP or HTTP in order to perform web surfing. There are many protocols that help for the functioning of the application layer protocol. File transfer, email, web surfing, virtual terminals are are performed at the application layer.
The presentation layer receives the data from the application layer, this data is in the form of numbers. It converts into the machine understandable language. The presentation layer can also be called the translation. Before transmitting the data, the data is get reduced by using data compression. During the data compression, it may lose the data or it cannot. It also performs encryption and decryption at the sender and the receiver side.
The next layer is the session layer that manages the connection. It enables sending and receiving of the data. The session layer consists of the APIs and NETBIOS for the basic input-output systems. It allows applications on different computers for communication.
The next layer is the transport layer that controls the reliability of the communication through segmentation, flow control, and error control.
The data that is received from the session layer is divided into the form of the data units called segments. each segment contains the source and the destination’s port number and the sequence number. The port number helps to direct each segment.
The transport layer sends the data segments into the network layer. The network layer works for the transmission of the received data segment from one computer to the other computer. The data units in the network layer are called packets.
The data link layer consists of two types of addressing, they are logical addressing and physical addressing. The logical addressing is done at the network layer and physical addressing is done at the physical layer. The mac address of the sender and the receiver are to each frame.
See lessWhich Of The Following Are Backed Up During An Incremental Backup?
Which of the following are backed up during an incremental backup? In the incremental backup, its backups only the files that are changed from last. Now, let us learn about different types of backups in detail. We can define fault tolerance as the prevention of data loss if the component fails. ButRead more
Which of the following are backed up during an incremental backup?
In the incremental backup, its backups only the files that are changed from last. Now, let us learn about different types of backups in detail. We can define fault tolerance as the prevention of data loss if the component fails.
But in some of the events if the fault tolerance fails, then the only option available is disaster recovery. Disaster recovery is nothing but, it is a process for the rebuilding of the organization of the data after the disaster being occurred, this type of process we call data loss. So we need to back up the data even we measure the fault tolerance.
Normally, we have three different types of backups. They are Incremental backup, differential backup, and full backup. Now, let us take an old tape backup storage device, many of the organizations are still using the backup storage device. The different backups that we learn can apply to all storage devices.
The full backup can backup all the data. All the data can simply get back up into a single tape. The full backup is the simplest type of backup to perform because it uses only one tape. But if the organization has a large amount of data, then performing if the full backup daily would be not efficient. The main disadvantage of doing a full backup is that it takes the longest to perform. The full backup does not have an advantage during the data restoration.
The Incremental backup is much faster than the full backup. In the incremental backup, the only data that is backed up is that has been changes since the last or incremental backup. To understand the concept in detail, let us take an example.
When a company does the full backup on Monday and performs incremental backups on Tuesday to Friday. The only data that is backed up is that data that has been changed since the last full or the incremental backup. So here, Tuesday will only backup’s the Tuesday’s data and Wednesday will only backups the Wednesday’s data, and so on.
Each backup tape only backups the data that has been changed on that week’s day. The main advantage of the incremental backup is that it is the fastest backup compared to a full or differential backup. And the main disadvantage of the incremental backup is that it takes the longest when we have to restore the data.
We have to restore the full backup along with the incremental backups and we have to restore the incremental in the same order. Here first we have to restore the full backup and we have to restore the incremental fro Tuesday to Friday in the correct order. After this is performed we have to full data restore for that week. Sp the incremental restore takes the longest time.
The differential backup is faster than the full backup but is slower than the incremental backup. It backups the data that has been changed since the last full backup.
See lessWhat Is A Characteristic Of A Wan Hub-And-Spoke Topology?
What is a characteristic of a wan hub-and-spoke topology? Before we discuss the characteristics of the wan hub and spoke topology, let us know the basic information about the wan hub and spoke topology and let us know why we need to know about the Hub-spoke topology. The below figure shows the archiRead more
What is a characteristic of a wan hub-and-spoke topology?
Before we discuss the characteristics of the wan hub and spoke topology, let us know the basic information about the wan hub and spoke topology and let us know why we need to know about the Hub-spoke topology.
The below figure shows the architecture of the wan hub-spoke topology. Here we have a VPN device that is connected to a virtual network. The hub-spoke topology is always been a hub virtual network. And we have a spoken virtual network that is connected to the hub. It is not a mandatory thing that we should always present an on-prem network, then it becomes a hub and spoke topology.
If the VPN is not present, we call the below figure the hub-spoke topology. Hence we have known how the hub-spoke architecture look likes. simply, a hub is a virtual network that acts as a central point of connectivity to the on-premises network or to some other virtual networks that are created for Isolation. And SPOKE is a virtual network that inspects with the hub. It is used for the isolated workloads.
The traffic flows between the on-premises data center and the help through either a VPN site to site or by the express route.
If we do not have the on-premises we don’t need the gateway because the peering doesn’t require any gateway.
Now let us understand how this architecture is getting used. The workloads can be deployed in the different types of the environment such as the developmental testing and protection that required shared services such as DNS, NTP, etc.
All the shared services are placed in the hub virtual network while each of the environments is deployed into a spoke in order to maintain the isolation. Here we are segregating all the environments with the virtual networks or with all the virtual networks by using some of the shared services from the hub virtual networks.
The hub virtual network consists of a firewall, DNS, DBMS, and all the shared or managed services that are in the hub. All these give isolation between the environment for the security and the management purpose.
Now let us know some of the characteristics of the hub-spoke topology. By centralizing the services that can be shared by the multiple resources or by the multiple environments uses the same shared services. These are very cost-effective. We can have these spokes in the same subscription or can we have them in a different subscription. The isolation can help in the security check.
The hub VNET is the central point of the connectivity to the on-premises network and hosts the services that can be consumed by the different workloads hosted by the spoke virtual network. We also need the gateway subnet for the VPN gateway spoke virtual network and peers. The spokes are mainly used to isolate their own virtual networks that are managed separately from their spokes. Each workload can have multiple tiers with multiple subnets through the load balancers.
See lessWhat Is A Definition Of A Two-Tier Lan Network Design?
What is a definition of a two-tier LAN network design? Normally there are two types of network topology architecture. Now, let us discuss each of these types in detail. They are three-tier architecture and the other one is the two-tier architecture. Planning and the design phases are very importantRead more
What is a definition of a two-tier LAN network design?
Normally there are two types of network topology architecture. Now, let us discuss each of these types in detail. They are three-tier architecture and the other one is the two-tier architecture. Planning and the design phases are very important things when we are trying to make a campus network.
Many technologies, variables need to be considered that affect the product selection and the design entirely. The network design can be smaller and more manageable. Each of these tiers is mostly focused on a specific set of roles. This helps the network designer and the architecture in order to optimize and select the right network hardware software and the feature to perform some of the specific roles for the network layer.
Now, let us discuss three tiers and the two-tier model in detail. The three-tier modeling can include all three layers. The three-tier model can mostly be used by large campus networks, in these where multiple distribution layer and building needs to be interconnected. In the three-tier layer, there are three layers.
They are the core layer, distribution layer, and access layer. The access layer is the first tier that is present at the edge of the campus. The access layer can grant the end devices access to the network as shown in the below figure 1.1. It can incorporate the layer 2 switches and the access points by providing connectivity between the two workstations and the servers.
The distribution layer is the second layer in the three-tier architecture that can act as the services and the control boundaries between the access layer and the core layer. The third layer is the core layer, it acts as a network backbone, it is the simplest but the most critical part of the campus layer. The core layer consists of high-speed network devices. It is designed in such as way that it can switch the packets as fast as possible.
Now let us discuss the two-tier network architecture. the two-tier model is most suitable for small to medium-sized campus networks. Here the core and the distribution layer are combined into the form of a single layer called the collapsed core. It is also called the collapsed code distribution architecture. The collab score is when the distribution and the core layer functions are implemented by the single device is the primary motivation for the collapsed core. It reduces the cost by maintaining most of the benefits of the three-tier hierarchical model.
The below figure 1.2 represents the two-tier architecture. Here the system becomes scalable. If we want to add some more users and more switches to the network then this becomes easier and more scalable.
See lessThese systems can also provide redundancy i.e it removes the duplicate components that are present. For suppose if any switch gets failed in the network there are some other switches that make the system available all the time. If only the two layers are present then we call it the two-tier architecture if three layers are present then we call it the three-tier architecture.
What Address And Prefix Length Is Used When Configuring An Ipv6 Default Static Route?
What address and prefix length is used when configuring an ipv6 default static route? Now, let us learn an IPV6 prefix length. The subnet mask is also known as the prefix length in IPV6. In the IPv6 prefixes, the network portion of the address is always identified by using the prefix length slash noRead more
What address and prefix length is used when configuring an ipv6 default static route?
Now, let us learn an IPV6 prefix length. The subnet mask is also known as the prefix length in IPV6. In the IPv6 prefixes, the network portion of the address is always identified by using the prefix length slash notations.
The prefix length is nothing but the number of bits that are present at the prefix network portion of the address. It can separate the network portion from the host portion. Here we call the network portion as prefix and the host portion called as the interface ID.
It is because devices that could have the IPv6 address and even the IPv4 addresses can be anything, they don’t have to be hosts. they can be all kinds of sensors, wireless devices, and all other kinds of things.
The prefix length is written immediately that following the IPv6 addresses by using no space. In the prefix length, we just count the number of bits, it has four bits for the hexadecimal digit and each one of that text. Hence 16 bits segments are separated by a colon “: “.
Let us see the below figure, here we have the prefix length of the slash 32 slashes 48 and so on that are differentiated by 2. The prefix length doesn’t have any fall.
Let us learn the IPv6 static route and the default route. Let us consider the below figure 1.1. The below figure consists of the two routers, this put the IP version 6 address on the internet two on router one, and ethernet to router 2. The other is going to 2001::, We put the address from the same range. Here we are going to make a network.
We have other addresses like 2111::1/64 and 2222::1/64. These two are the addresses for the two different networks that are connected to route 1 and the other network connected to the router. If we do not perform any routing, router 2 will not be able to reach the other network. So we use the static route and the default route.
For the static route, we make the routing manually, if route 1 wants to move to the other network, we should send everything to the next stop, after we perform this operation we can reach the other network and vice versa.
We can also use the static default route. suppose we have an IP version 6 network and we want to move to the internet, then we can use the default route which is actually a default static route
See lessFirstly we create the bridge interface on router 1 and we assign the IP address of 2111::1/64. And on ethernet 2 of router 1, we put an IP address of 2001::1/64. After this, we create a bridge interface on router 2 and we assign the IP v6 address of the 2222::1/64. We try to ping the bridge interface of the R1. And we create a static route from router 1 in order to reach the network on the R2 bridge interface.
What Do The Client/Server And Peer-To-Peer Network Models Have In Common?
What do the client/server and peer-to-peer network models have in common? Now, let us learn about the client-server model and the peer-to-peer model. These two are the two networking models. The client-server model, that requires the central servers that are responding to the client requests. And thRead more
What do the client/server and peer-to-peer network models have in common?
Now, let us learn about the client-server model and the peer-to-peer model. These two are the two networking models.
The client-server model, that requires the central servers that are responding to the client requests. And the peer-to-peer network model, there are different variations in the peer-to-peer network model. Now let us look briefly into each of the client-server and the peer-to-peer models.
When we go in a traditional way, the networking has been built on the client-server architecture. In the client-server model, two computers typically can communicate with each other by using the ad of the request the response.
The quiet requestor who asking for the service is the client.
And the responder is the one that servicing and takes the role of a server. In the client-server model, the files are downloaded from the server, and files are uploaded by the client, so when we think of the computers, it looks like we are downloading the webpages, files, or any other data. When we are sending the information, we are usually uploading the information to the server or by uploading the request.
The servers can have multiple clients that request the information at the same time.
The server needs software and also needs processing power and the memory and stage. The server has to see that every client should maintain the window sizes congestion window sends the window and receive the window sequence numbers, all this information should be maintained for each client that takes the more processing memory.
Now let us discuss the peer to peer, networking model. In the peer-to-peer model, the landers with the IPV4 mostly concerns.
The peer-to-peer can decentralize the resources on a network, it says that anybody can be a server and the data can be located anywhere. On any connected device, in the peer-to-peer architecture, the data is accessed from a peer device to another peer device without going through any kind of dedicated server.
In the peer-to-peer model, anybody can access the information and anybody can share the information together. Each device can be known as a peer and can function as both the client and the server.
There are some common peers to peer networks, let us discuss each of them briefly. Bitcoin, G2, BitTorrent,eDonkey are some of the examples of the peer-to-peer network. One of the main problems in peer to peer model is that the private IPV4 addresses as an act, the customer can communicate with another customer if they have the same private IPV4 address. We cannot just directly connect with each other.
We use the index server to make the connection between the two servers. After the connection is established, there is no need to communicate with the index server.
We use the TCP/IP hole punching and the NAT traversals that add some of the complications to the application like network latency delay. It is just a workaround to allow these two private network devices to be able to communicate with each other. We can use the IPV6 where we can directly communicate with each other without any private IPs.
See lessWhich Of The Following Represents The Tcp/Ip Four-Layer Reference Model?
Which of the following represents the TCP/IP four-layer reference model? The TCP/IP model is a set of communication protocols. These are developed in 1974 by the department of defense. We all know that every network protocol consists of a set of rules. It governs how the data is exchanged between thRead more
Which of the following represents the TCP/IP four-layer reference model?
The TCP/IP model is a set of communication protocols. These are developed in 1974 by the department of defense. We all know that every network protocol consists of a set of rules. It governs how the data is exchanged between the network.
But when we talk about the network protocol, the TCP/IP model will act as a rulebook. These TCP/IP has an end-to-end data knowledge. It tells how the data should be packetized and get addressed. It also tells how it gets transmitted and received.
Without the presence of the TCP/IP protocol, most of the computers didn’t even know where to start the process. Let us know how we can understand the TCP/IP rulebook. The TCP/IP protocol has separated the protocol into four distinct layers. This can also be called the four-layer model.
Let us know the four different layers in detail. They are the application layer, transport layer(also called the TCP layer), Internet layer(IP layer) and the last one is a network interface. Let us learn in detail about these four layers.
The first type of layer is the application layer. The application layer can easily get understand. The application layer is nothing but, which is visible to the user. For suppose the video that we are watching, or a website that we are seeing on the internet is the example of the application layer. In simple words, the application layer contains all types of programs, web browsers, and web servers that are used to exchange information. It sends the files and information to the transport layer and receives them from the transport layer.
Here, after receiving the message from the application layer, the transport layer(TCP layer) doesn’t care about the information that the application layer has sent. The transport layer(TCP layer) is only interested in how the information sent is going to get its desired location.
This information is packetized by the transport layer of the TCP/IP protocol. Here the TCP/IP protocol cannot send the information that is in fully assembled form, because it is too complex. Here the TCP/IP protocol plays the main role by breaking down the complex information into smaller parts. These parts we call the packets. These packets are only 1-kilo bytes in size. After dividing this into smaller packets, these packets are sent into the next layer called the IP layer/Internet layer.
The Internet/IP layer will only deal with things called IP addresses. We can simply say that the IP address is similar to the address of our home. It defines the exact location or a specific network that can be found with the help of the IP addresses.
See lessThe internet or IP layer send the packet through the proper interface by addressing each tiny packet to the proper destination.
The network interface is like the central hub where all the information is passed through it. It is where all the information is moved to the different IP addresses. This four-layer model is always used on the internet. It allows to send, print, and receive images or information from other users.
If The Vlan Tag Is Present In An Ethernet Frame, What Is The Maximum Frame Size?
If the VLAN tag is present in an ethernet frame, what is the maximum frame size? The maximum size of the frame would be 1518 bytes to 1522 bytes if the VLAN tag is present in the ethernet frame. Let us know what is VLAN tag how the tagging and trunking 101 works. The IEEE 802.1Q is always referred tRead more
If the VLAN tag is present in an ethernet frame, what is the maximum frame size?
The maximum size of the frame would be 1518 bytes to 1522 bytes if the VLAN tag is present in the ethernet frame.
Let us know what is VLAN tag how the tagging and trunking 101 works. The IEEE 802.1Q is always referred to as the Dot1Q. It is a networking standard that mostly supports VLAN on the ethernet network. This networking standard tells a method in order to tag traffic between the switches. It tells which traffic belongs to which VLAN. To understand this concept in detail, let us take an example.
Let consider a simple switch 1 and a single computer A connected to the VLAN 10 and another single computer B connected to the VLAN 20. Take another switch 2 that we assign computer C to say as VLAN 10 and a computer D to the VLAN 20. Here we can say that computer C and Computer D belong to the VLAN 10 and computer B and computer D are connected to the VLAN 20.
These VLANs are local to each switch and the VLAN information cannot be passed between the switches. So we should link the two switches so that the computers are on the same VLAN can communicate.
This type of link we call the trunk. It can also be called the 802.1q link or can be called the Dot1Q link or simply we can call it the trunk link. This provides VLAN ID for the frames for traversing between the switches.
A trunk can be configured between the two switches or can be between a switch and the router. By the default mode, this trunk can able to carry the traffic from all the available VLANs to or from the switch. This can be configured to carry the specified VLAN traffic. The process that we traverse different VLAN traffic over the trunk is called trunking.
The main reason that a single link can become a trunk is not because of some of the special physical cable, but simply because of some of the configurations of the switch ports on both ends of the link.
Simply because of the configuration of the switch ports on the two ends of the link trunk port. Trunk port is the term of cisco, we call it the tagged port in the non-cisco world. Even the names are different it means the same thing.
A trunk port can add the VLAN tag for an ethernet frame in order to indicate which VLAN frame it indicates. The access port acts as the switch port that sends and expects to receive the traffic with the no VLAN tag.
We can also say that the access port carries traffic only for the one VLAN. To make the different VLAN traffic that travels across the two switches, we need a trunk, it is created by configuring the trunk ports. These trunk ports send and receive the tagged traffic. The access port can send and receive the untagged traffic.
See lessDuring The Boot Process, Where Will The Router Bootstrap Program Look For The Ios Image By Default?
During the boot process, where will the router bootstrap program look for the ios image by default? During the boot process, the router bootstrap program first looks into the flash memory. If the IOS image is not found in the flash memory then we look into the TFTP server. Now, let us learn the bootRead more
During the boot process, where will the router bootstrap program look for the ios image by default?
During the boot process, the router bootstrap program first looks into the flash memory. If the IOS image is not found in the flash memory then we look into the TFTP server. Now, let us learn the boot process of the cisco router. Let us learn the step-by-step process of the boot process. When we power on the router, it will perform the POST. POST stands for power-on self-test. The power-on self-test will test the hardware of the router like ROM, RAM VRAM, and so on.
If the hardware test gets passed then it will check the bootstrap configuration of the value. The bootstrap checks the comparison register value to specify where the ios are get loaded. After the boot is get trapped, it is to locate the IOS. It searches the IOS in the flash, if we do not find it in the flash, then it will search in the TFTP server.
If it is found in flash or in TFTP then it will get exacted and load the ios in the ram. After we load the IOS into the random access memory, it will locate into a startup configuration from the NVRAM or the TFTP server or from the console. If we locate or find the startup configuration then we load the startup configuration. If we do not find any start-up configuration then we go into the setup mode. In the initial configuration, we have to perform the manual configuration.
Let us learn the different stages of the booting sequence in detail and its stages. Inside the router, we see many of the components like ROM, flash, NVRAM, and ram. Let us learn about the different components of the router.
ROM is one of the components in the router. The ROM can store four components in it. They are POST, BOOTSTRAP program, ram on mode, and in the mini ios. These are the different individual components of the RAM.
FLASH is another type of component that we have discussed. the flash is a permanent memory that means the data that is stored in flash is not lost even when we turn off the router. The router or switch uses the flash to store the ios image.
Another component is the NVRAM, which is a nonvolatile random access memory. It is also called the permanent memory
RAM is another component, it is a type of temporary memory, we lose the data after the router is turned off. The RAM works as the fastest memory among all the other components of the router.
The configuration file is another type that contains two sets of configuration files. One is the running configuration and the other one is known as the start-up configuration. The configuration value and the configuration file are different from the other.
The Flash is used in most routers because we do not lose the memory even it gets turned off. We can say that flash acts as the hard disk of the router.
See lessWhat is the Difference Between Static And Dynamic Routing?
Difference between Static and Dynamic Routing Let us know the basic definition of routing. Routing is a type of process of creating the route for the data packets. There are two types of routing. 1. Static routing 2. Dynamic routing Let us know the difference between static and dynamic routing. TheRead more
Difference between Static and Dynamic Routing
Let us know the basic definition of routing. Routing is a type of process of creating the route for the data packets. There are two types of routing.
1. Static routing
2. Dynamic routing
Let us know the difference between static and dynamic routing. The routing is done in the network layer of the OSI model. As we said earlier, static and dynamic are the two types of routing.
Static Routing
• Static routing consists of no routing protocol. Static routing is a way of communication that doesn’t use any protocol.
• The network administrator will manually enter into the routing table.
Let us take an example to understand in detail the working of the static routing. Let say five routers that are connected to each other i.e router 1 router 2, router 3, router 4, router 5. If we want to send the data from router 1 to router 3, the route can be created in such a way that router 1 forwards the data to router 2 and this router 2 will forwards the information to router 3. Suppose if router 2 fails during the transmission, router 1 cannot decide the alternate route for the data packets.
To resolve this type of situation, the network administrator has to maintain another route manually in order to configure the alternate route. Now, then the data can be sent to the right destination address.
• The main drawback of static routing is that static routing requires support 24/7. The router cannot decide the alternate route for the data packets if any particular router has been failed.
• The static routing can also be a very time taking process, where the user needs to wait till the network administrator finds the alternate route for the data packets.
To overcome the disadvantage of static routing, dynamic routing has been introduced.
Dynamic routing
Let us learn what actually the dynamic routing is, and how it’s gonna solve the problems in static routing. Unlike static routing, dynamic routing uses the routing protocol. This routing protocol creates the route for the transmission of the data packets. The data is stored in the routing table after collecting all the information.
Let us take an example to understand the concept of dynamic routing. Let say five routers are connected to each other. In Dynamic routing, the administrator will not create the routing for the data packets. Instead of creating, the network administrator assigns a new routing protocol for the router.
Now, the newly assigned routing protocol can automatically decide the best route for the data packets. Unlike static routing, if any router fails, the dynamic routing protocol has the ability to automatically choose the alternate route for the data packets. These can decrease the work of the network administrator. And user no needs to wait for a long time as in static routing. It is one of the main advantages of dynamic routing.
In Dynamic routing, the routing protocol is used to route the packets and make entries in the routing table. It is mostly suitable for large network areas.
See less